COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING...
Research by RKT
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING HAS A POSITIVE IMPACT ON MENTAL HEALTH
What is CBT?
CBT is based on the cognitive model of mental illness, initially developed by Beck (1964). In its simplest form, the cognitive model ‘hypothesises that people’s emotions and behaviours are influenced by their perceptions of events. It is not a situation in and of itself that determines what people feel but rather the way in which they construe a situation’ (Beck, 1964). In other words, how people feel is determined by the way in which they interpret situations rather than by the situations per se. For example, depressed patients are considered to be excessively negative in their interpretations of events (Beck, 1976).
Fundamental to the cognitive model is the way in which cognition (the way we think about things and the content of these thoughts) is conceptualised. Beck (1976) outlined three levels of cognition:
Core beliefs
Dysfunctional assumptions
Negative automatic thoughts
Core beliefs, or schemas, are deeply held beliefs about self, others and the world. Core beliefs are generally learned early in life and are influenced by childhood experiences and seen as absolute. The cognitive triad of negative core beliefs, as depicted in Fig. 1, captures how they relate to:
The self, e.g. ‘I’m useless’
The world/others, e.g. ‘the world is unfair’
The future, e.g. ‘things will never work out for me’
Relevant Tests, Scales, and Questionnaires
Although many people have included measures of learned helplessness in their studies, they are often informal measures. However, there are two measures that have been used fairly often and/or recently.
The Learned Helplessness Scale (LHS) was developed by Quinless and Nelson (1988) to capture and calculate a score for learned helplessness. The scale is composed of 20 items rated on a scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). The minimum score on this measure is 20 and the maximum score is 80, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of learned helplessness.
The Learned Helplessness Questionnaire (LHQ) was created in Sorrenti and colleagues’ 2014 study on learned helplessness and mastery orientation. The LHQ consists of 13 items rated on a scale from 1 (not true) to 5 (absolutely true), for a total possible score between 13 and 65. An example item from this scale is the statement, “When you encounter an obstacle in schoolwork you get discouraged and stop trying. You are easily frustrated.”
If you’re more interested in a scale measuring learned optimism, you can find the Learned Optimism Test, a scale adapted from Seligman’s book, at this link. It includes 48 items with two possible responses, and the survey-taker chooses which option sounds more like him or her.
Once you complete the test, your scores will be automatically populated by clicking the “Calculate” button at the bottom of the screen. Along with a numeric score, you will also see a label or brief explanation of the score (e.g., “moderately pessimistic,” “very optimistic,” or “very low self-esteem”). An example item from this scale is worded as follows:
- You and your spouse (boyfriend/girlfriend) have been fighting a great deal.
- I have been feeling cranky and pressured lately.
- He/she has been hostile lately.